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+ | ====== July - The Christian Church, Growth ====== | ||
+ | ===== July 1 ===== | ||
+ | ==== John Wycliffe - The Morning Star of the Reformation ==== | ||
+ | === John Wycliffe (1320 – December 1384 AD) "The Morning Star of the Reformation" | ||
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+ | John Wycliffe was an English Scholastic philosopher, | ||
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+ | Wycliffe was also an early advocate for translation of the Bible into the common language. He completed his translation directly from the Vulgate into vernacular English in the year 1382, now known as Wycliffe' | ||
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+ | Conflict with the Church | ||
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+ | Theologically, | ||
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+ | The sharper the strife became, the more Wycliffe had recourse to his translation of Scripture as the basis of all Christian doctrinal opinion, and expressly tried to prove this to be the only norm for Christian faith. To refute his opponents, he wrote the book in which he endeavored to show that Holy Scripture contains all truth and, being from God, is the only authority. He referred to the conditions under which the condemnation of his 18 theses was brought about; and the same may be said of his books dealing with the Church, the office of king, and the power of the pope – all completed within the space of two years (1378–79 AD). To Wycliffe, the Church is the totality of those who are predestined to blessedness. It includes the Church triumphant in heaven, those in purgatory, and the Church militant or men on earth. No one who is eternally lost has part in it. There is one universal Church, and outside of it there is no salvation. Its head is Christ. No pope may say that he is the head, for he cannot say that he is elect or even a member of the Church. | ||
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+ | It would be a mistake to assume that Wycliffe' | ||
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+ | At Oxford | ||
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+ | Wycliffe was Master of Balliol College, Oxford in 1361. In this same year, he was presented by the college with the parish of Fylingham in Lincolnshire. For this he had to give up the leadership of Balliol College, though he could continue to live at Oxford. He is said to have had rooms in the buildings of The Queen' | ||
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+ | Between 1372 and 1384, he became a Doctor of Divinity, making use of his right to lecture upon systematic divinity, but these lectures were not the origin of his Summa. In 1376, Wycliffe received a letter from his parents suggesting he join a different university; he declined to take their advice. In 1368 (chronology), | ||
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+ | ===== July 2 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Reformation Review ==== | ||
+ | === A Review of the Protestanstant Reformation === | ||
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+ | **The Need for Reformation a Reforming of the Church** | ||
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+ | Throughout the existence of the Christian Church the original and true Church doctrines have at times been estranged, isolated and even removed from within the confines of Church practices and traditions. | ||
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+ | The new replacement doctrines consisting of Greek philosophy, Gnostic heresy, cultural traditions, political pressures and even occultic practices have had such a diluting effect on the actual Christian Church that a reformation a splitting away became the only viable option. | ||
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+ | **Reformation and Counter Reformation Bibles** | ||
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+ | King James Version (1611) — Revelation 5:10 And hast made __us__ unto our God kings and priests: and __we__ shall reign on the earth. | ||
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+ | Douay-Rheims (1899) — Revelation 5:10 And hast made __us__ to our God a kingdom and priests, and __we__ shall reign on the earth. | ||
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+ | **Modern Bibles** | ||
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+ | Modern Catholic Bible – Revelation 5:10 You made __them__ a kingdom and priests for our God, and __they__ will reign on earth. | ||
+ | New International Version (NIV) — Revelation 5:10 You have made __them__ to be a kingdom and priests to serve our God, and __they__ will reign on the earth. | ||
+ | English Standard Version (ESV) — Revelation 5:10 and you have made __them__ a kingdom and priests to our God, and __they__ shall reign on the earth. | ||
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+ | **Note:** where Christianity seeks to make us " | ||
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+ | ===== July 3 ===== | ||
+ | ==== The 3 Solas by Martin Luther ==== | ||
+ | === Theological Issues of the Reformation "The 3 Solas" by Martin Luther === | ||
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+ | The theology of the Reformers departed from the Roman Catholic Church primarily on the basis of three great principles: | ||
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+ | • Sole authority of Scripture -- God revealed (John 12:38, Romans 1:17, Ephesians 3:5) | ||
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+ | • Justification by faith alone -- man revealed (Deuteronomy 29:29, Luke 2:35) | ||
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+ | • Priesthood of the believer -- interaction between the two (Hebrews 4:14, Hebrews 6:19, Hebrews 10:19-22) | ||
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+ | **By Scripture Alone (Sola Scriptura)** | ||
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+ | Sola Scriptura (by Scripture alone) was one of the watchwords of the Reformation. This doctrine maintains that Scripture, as contained in the Bible, is the only authority for the Christian in matters of faith, life and conduct. The teachings and traditions of the church are to be completely subordinate to the Scriptures. Roman Catholicism, | ||
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+ | **By Faith Alone (Sola Fide)** | ||
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+ | Sola Fide (by faith alone) was the other watchword of the Reformation. This doctrine maintains that we are justified before God (and thus saved) by faith alone, not by anything we do, not by anything the church does for us, and not by faith plus anything else. It was also recognized by the early Reformers that Sola Fide is not rightly understood until it is seen as anchored in the broader principle of Sola Gratia, by grace alone. Hence the Reformers were calling the church back to the basic teaching of Scripture where the apostle Paul states that we are "saved by grace through faith and that not of ourselves, it is the gift of God," Eph. 2:8. | ||
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+ | **Priesthood of All Believers - 'one priesthood of believers' | ||
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+ | The third great principle of the Reformation was the priesthood of all believers. The Scriptures teach that believers are a "holy priesthood," | ||
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+ | **Note:** The original 3 Solas are comprised of the three necessary and distinct categories; God Revealed (One Scripture), Man Revealed (One Faith), and the interaction between the two (One Priesthood). | ||
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+ | ===== July 4 ===== | ||
+ | ==== The Believer' | ||
+ | === The Believer' | ||
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+ | **The Believer' | ||
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+ | sacrifices, acceptable to God by Jesus Christ. ~ 1 Peter 2: | ||
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+ | The main difference between the Levitical Priesthood of the Old Testament and the Royal Priesthood of the New Testament is that the Levitical Priesthood is physical in nature while the Royal Priesthood is Spiritual in nature otherwise the two priesthoods are nearly identical in that the physical sacrifices the Levitical Priests offered up to God are actually models and types of the Spiritual sacrifices that we now offer up to God. | ||
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+ | Jesus instructed that the entire teaching of the Old Testament Law and of the Prophets is not physical but is Spiritual to direct mankind into a relationship of loving God and of loving our fellow neighbor. | ||
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+ | This is now fulfilled in the Royal Law of the New Testament' | ||
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+ | darkness into His marvelous light; ~ 1 Peter 2: | ||
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+ | Both Priesthoods require a High Priest and for the Royal Priesthood it is Jesus that is the High Priest as Jesus occupies All three offices of King, Priest and Prophet and therefore His Priesthood derives the name of " | ||
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+ | Neither by the blood of goats and calves, but by His own blood He entered in once into the Holy Place (Heaven), having obtained eternal redemption for us. ~ Hebrews 9: | ||
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+ | **Conclusion: | ||
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+ | ===== July 5 ===== | ||
+ | ==== House of Medici ==== | ||
+ | === The Occult - House of Medici === | ||
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+ | The House of Medici [Occult Family] was a political dynasty, banking family and later royal house that first began to gather prominence under Cosimo de' Medici in the Republic of Florence during the late 14th century. The family originated in the Mugello region of the Tuscan countryside, | ||
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+ | The Four Medici Popes | ||
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+ | The Medici produced four Popes of the Catholic Church — Pope Leo X (1513–1521) [the Pope Martin Luther opposed], Pope Clement VII (1523–1534) [presided during the sacking of Rome (1527)], Pope Pius IV (1559–1565), | ||
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+ | Their wealth and influence initially derived from the textile trade guided by the guild of the Arte della Lana. Like other signore families they dominated their city's government, they were able to bring Florence under their family' | ||
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+ | The Medici Bank was one of the most prosperous and most respected institutions in Europe. There are some estimates that the Medici family were the wealthiest family in Europe for a period of time. From this base, they acquired political power initially in Florence and later in wider Italy and Europe. A notable contribution to the profession of accounting was the improvement of the general ledger system through the development of the double-entry bookkeeping system for tracking credits and debits. The Medici family were among the earliest businesses to use the system. | ||
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+ | ===== July 6 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Lorenzo de' Medici ==== | ||
+ | === Lorenzo de' Medici the de facto ruler of the Florentine Republic during the Italian Renaissance === | ||
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+ | Lorenzo de' Medici (1 January 1449 – 9 April 1492) was an Italian statesman and de facto ruler of the Florentine Republic during the Italian Renaissance. Known as Lorenzo the Magnificent (Lorenzo il Magnifico) by contemporary Florentines, | ||
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+ | Lorenzo' | ||
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+ | Lorenzo was an artist himself, writing poetry in his native Tuscan. In his poetry he celebrates life even while—particularly in his later works—acknowledging with melancholy the fragility and instability of the human condition. Love, feasts and light dominate his verse. | ||
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+ | Cosimo de' Medici had started the collection of books which became the Medici Library (also called the Laurentian Library) and Lorenzo expanded it. Lorenzo' | ||
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+ | Apart from a personal interest Lorenzo also used the Florentine scene of fine arts for his diplomatic efforts. An example includes the commission of Ghirlandaio, | ||
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+ | In 1471 Lorenzo calculated that since 1434, his family had spent some 663,000 florins (approx. 460 million USD today) for charity, buildings and taxes. | ||
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+ | ===== July 7 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Kabbalah ==== | ||
+ | === Kabbalah - Jewish Occultism === | ||
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+ | Kabbalah (literally " | ||
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+ | Kabbalah' | ||
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+ | Kabbalah originally developed entirely within the realm of Jewish thought, and kabbalists often use classical Jewish sources to explain and demonstrate its esoteric teachings. These teachings are held by followers in Judaism to define the inner meaning of both the Hebrew Bible and traditional Rabbinic literature and their formerly concealed transmitted dimension, as well as to explain the significance of Jewish religious observances. | ||
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+ | Traditional practitioners believe its earliest origins pre-date world religions, forming the primordial blueprint for Creation' | ||
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+ | ===== July 8 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Michelangelo and the Medici ==== | ||
+ | === Michelangelo the Great Artist and Painter of the Famous Fresco in the Sistine Chapel === | ||
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+ | Michelangelo' | ||
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+ | From 1490 to 1492, Michelangelo attended the Humanist academy which the Medici had founded along Neo Platonic lines. He absorbed Platonist and Neo-Platonist philosophies through his direct contact with some of the great Humanist philosophers of the Medici Court. Consequently, | ||
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+ | Lorenzo de' Medici' | ||
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+ | Towards the end of 1494, the political situation in Florence was calmer. Upon his return to Florence, he found that things in the city had greatly changed. The city, previously under threat from the French, was no longer in danger as Charles VIII had suffered defeats. Michelangelo returned to Florence but received no commissions from the new city government under Savonarola. He returned to the employment of the Medici. During the half year he spent in Florence he worked on two small statues, a child St. John the Baptist and a sleeping Cupid. | ||
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+ | In 1527, the Florentine citizens, encouraged by the sack of Rome, threw out the Medici and restored the republic. A siege of the city ensued, and Michelangelo went to the aid of his beloved Florence by working on the city's fortifications from 1528 to 1529. The city fell in 1530, and the Medici were restored to power. **Completely out of sympathy with the repressive reign of the ducal [Dukedom] Medici, Michelangelo left Florence for good** in the mid-1530s, leaving assistants to complete the Medici chapel. Michelangelo left Florence for the last time at the age of sixty, leaving the Medici chapel unfinished. Michelangelo decided to settle in Rome, where he had hoped to finish Pope Julius II's tomb but was unable to do so, due to a new project that had been assigned to him by Pope Paul III. Thus Michelangelo set the tomb aside to paint a fresco in the Sistine Chapel. Michelangelo was commissioned to do the tombs of Urbino, Lorenzo de' Medici’s grandson, Giuliano, duke of Nemours and Lorenzo’s third son, and popes Leo X and Clement VII, both Medici; also Lorenzo the Great. Only two were completed: Giuliano’s and Lorenzo’s. | ||
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+ | Although the construction of the monument of Pope Julius did not go according to plan, it was officially unveiled in February 1545. The original design had been cut down to something small and manageable with only three sculptured done by Michelangelo. Michelangelo, | ||
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+ | **Note:** there are indications that Michelangelo rejected his occult upbringing and converted to a mild form of [works based] Christianity. Before his death Michelangelo requested and later received a Christian burial along with receiving his 'last rites' sacrament from a priest. | ||
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+ | ===== July 9 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Pope Leo X - Occult Pope ==== | ||
+ | === Occult Pope - Pope Leo X granted fraudulent financial indulgences for sins and was opposed by Martin Luther' | ||
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+ | Pope Leo X (11 December 1475 – 1 December 1521), born Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici, was Pope from 9 March 1513 to his death in 1521. The second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, | ||
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+ | Following the death of Pope Julius II, Giovanni was elected pope after securing the backing of the younger members of the Sacred College. Early on in his reign he oversaw the closing sessions of the Fifth Council of the Lateran, but failed sufficiently to implement the reforms agreed. In 1517 he led a costly war that succeeded in securing his nephew as duke of Urbino, but which damaged the papal finances. He later only narrowly escaped a plot by some cardinals to poison him. | ||
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+ | He is probably best remembered for granting indulgences for those who donated to reconstruct St. Peter' | ||
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+ | He borrowed and spent heavily. A significant patron of the arts, upon election Leo is alleged to have said, "Since God has given us the papacy, let us enjoy it". Under his reign, progress was made on the rebuilding of Saint Peter' | ||
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+ | ===== July 10 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Martin Luther ==== | ||
+ | === Martin Luther' | ||
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+ | Martin Luther OSA [Order of Saint Augustine] (10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German monk, former Catholic priest, professor of theology and seminal figure of a reform movement in 16th century Christianity, | ||
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+ | Luther taught that salvation and subsequently eternity in heaven is not earned by good deeds but is received only as a free gift of God's grace through faith in Jesus Christ as redeemer from sin and subsequently eternity in Hell. His theology challenged the authority of the Pope of the Roman Catholic Church by teaching that the Bible is the only source of divinely revealed knowledge from God and opposed sacerdotalism by considering all baptized Christians to be a holy priesthood. Those who identify with these, and all of Luther' | ||
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+ | His translation of the Bible into the vernacular (instead of Latin) made it more accessible, which had a tremendous impact on the church and on German culture. It fostered the development of a standard version of the German language, added several principles to the art of translation, | ||
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+ | In his later years, in deteriorating health, Luther became increasingly antagonistic toward Jews, writing that Jewish synagogues and homes should be destroyed, their money confiscated, | ||
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+ | Monastic and Academic Life | ||
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+ | Luther dedicated himself to monastic life, devoting himself to fasting, long hours in prayer, pilgrimage, and frequent confession. He would later remark, "If anyone could have gained heaven as a monk, then I would certainly have done so." Luther described this period of his life as one of deep spiritual despair. He said, "I lost touch with Christ the Savior and Comforter, and made of him the jailer and hangman of my poor soul." Johann von Staupitz, his superior, pointed Luther’s mind away from continual reflection upon his sins toward the merits of Christ. He taught that true repentance does not involve self-inflicted penances and punishments but rather a change of heart. | ||
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+ | In 1507, he was ordained to the priesthood, and in 1508 von Staupitz, first dean of the newly founded University of Wittenberg, sent for Luther, to teach theology. He received a Bachelor' | ||
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+ | Later Life | ||
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+ | Luther wrote about the Jews throughout his career, though only a few of his works dealt with them directly. Luther rarely encountered Jews during his life, but his attitudes reflected a theological and cultural tradition which saw Jews as a rejected people guilty of the murder of Christ, and he lived within a local community that had expelled Jews some ninety years earlier. He considered the Jews blasphemers and liars because they rejected the divinity of Jesus, whereas Christians believed Jesus was the Messiah. But Luther believed that all human beings who set themselves against God were equally guilty. As early as 1516, he wrote that many people "are proud with marvelous stupidity when they call the Jews dogs, evildoers, or whatever they like, while they too, and equally, do not realize who or what they are in the sight of God". In 1523, Luther advised kindness toward the Jews in That Jesus Christ was Born a Jew, but only with the aim of converting them to Christianity. When his efforts at conversion failed, he grew increasingly bitter toward them. | ||
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+ | Luther had been suffering from ill health for years, including Ménière' | ||
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+ | His poor physical health made him short-tempered and even harsher in his writings and comments. His wife Katharina was overheard saying, "Dear husband, you are too rude," and he responded, "They are teaching me to be rude." In 1545 and 1546 Luther preached three times in the Market Church in Halle, staying with his friend Justus Jonas during Christmas. | ||
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+ | His last sermon was delivered at Eisleben, his place of birth, on 15 February 1546, three days before his death. It was " | ||
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+ | An apoplectic stroke deprived him of his speech, and he died shortly afterwards at 2:45 a.m. on 18 February 1546, aged 62, in Eisleben, the city of his birth. He was buried in the Castle Church in Wittenberg, beneath the pulpit. The funeral was held by his friends Johannes Bugenhagen and Philipp Melanchthon. A year later, troops of Luther' | ||
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+ | A piece of paper was later found on which Luther had written his last statement. The statement was in Latin, apart from "We are beggars," | ||
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+ | 1. No one can understand Virgil' | ||
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+ | 2. No one can understand Cicero' | ||
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+ | 3. Know that no one can have indulged in the Holy Writers sufficiently, | ||
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+ | ===== July 11 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Pope Clement VII - Occult Pope ==== | ||
+ | === Pope Clement VII - The Sacke of Rome 1527 AD === | ||
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+ | Pope Clement VII (26 May 1478 – 25 September 1534), born Giulio di Giuliano de' Medici, was Pope from 19 November 1523 to his death in 1534. | ||
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+ | Sack of Rome 1527 AD | ||
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+ | The Pope's wavering politics also caused the rise of the Imperial party inside the Curia: Cardinal Pompeo Colonna' | ||
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+ | Soon he found himself alone in Italy too, as Alfonso d' | ||
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+ | Charles of Bourbon died while mounting a ladder during the short siege and his starving troops, unpaid and left without a guide, felt free to ravage Rome from 6 May 1527. The many incidents of murder, rape, and vandalism that followed ended the splendours of Renaissance Rome forever. Clement VII, who had displayed no more resolution in his military than in his political conduct, was shortly afterwards (6 June) obliged to surrender himself together with the Castel Sant' | ||
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+ | Clement was kept as a prisoner in Castel Sant' | ||
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+ | During his half-year imprisonment in 1527, Clement VII grew a full beard as a sign of mourning for the sack of Rome. This was a violation of Catholic canon law, which required priests to be clean-shaven; | ||
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+ | Unlike Julius II, however, Clement VII kept his beard until his death in 1534. His example in wearing a beard was followed by his successor, Paul III, and indeed by twenty-four Popes who followed him, down to Innocent XII, who died in 1700. Clement VII was thus the unintentional originator of a fashion that lasted well over a century. | ||
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+ | Meanwhile, in Florence, Republican enemies of the Medici took advantage of the chaos to again expel the Pope's family from the city. | ||
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+ | In June of the next year the warring parties signed the Peace of Barcelona. The Papal States regained some cities, and Charles V agreed to restore the Medici to power in Florence. In 1530, after an eleven-month siege, the Tuscan city capitulated, | ||
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+ | The English Reformation | ||
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+ | Clement' | ||
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+ | Henry was married to Anne Boleyn at some debated point between the end of 1532 and the beginning of 1533. One 16th century chronicler put the wedding service on the feast of Saint Erkenwald in Dover Castle, around 14 November, whilst others have suggested a second or perhaps sole Nuptial Mass at the Palace of Whitehall in Westminster on 25 January 1533. The name of the celebrant is unknown, although various sources suggest it was Father Rowland Lee, future Bishop of Lichfield, or Prior George Browne, future Archbishop of Dublin. The marriage was made easier by the death of Archbishop William Warham, a stalwart friend of the Pope, after which Henry persuaded Clement to appoint Father Thomas Cranmer, a friend of the Boleyn family, as his successor as Archbishop of Canterbury. The Pope granted the papal bulls necessary for Cranmer’s promotion to Canterbury, as Henry had personally financed them. Cranmer was prepared to grant the annulment of the marriage to Catherine as Henry required. Anne gave birth to a daughter, the future Queen Elizabeth I, three months after her public coronation as queen in Westminster Abbey. The Pope responded to the marriage by excommunicating both Henry and Cranmer from the Catholic Church. For some time, the news was kept from the new queen, for fear it would bring about a miscarriage. | ||
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+ | Consequently in England, in the same year, the Act of First Fruits and Tenths transferred the taxes on ecclesiastical income from the Pope to the English Crown. The Peter' | ||
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+ | ===== July 12 ===== | ||
+ | ==== John Calvin ==== | ||
+ | === John Calvin the Father of the dubious Modern Reformed Theology === | ||
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+ | John Calvin (French: Jean Calvin, born Jehan Cauvin: 10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564) was an influential French theologian and pastor during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism. Originally trained as a humanist (i.e. professionalism) lawyer, he broke from the Roman Catholic Church around 1530. After religious tensions provoked a violent uprising against Protestants in France, Calvin fled to Basel, Switzerland, | ||
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+ | In that year, Calvin was recruited by William Farel to help reform the church in Geneva. The city council resisted the implementation of Calvin' | ||
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+ | Following his return, Calvin introduced new forms of church government and liturgy, despite the opposition of several powerful families in the city who tried to curb his authority. During this period, Michael Servetus, a Spaniard known for his heretical views, arrived in Geneva. He was denounced by Calvin and executed by the city council. Following an influx of supportive refugees and new elections to the city council, Calvin' | ||
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+ | Calvin was a tireless polemic and apologetic writer who generated much controversy. He also exchanged cordial and supportive letters with many reformers, including Philipp Melanchthon and Heinrich Bullinger. In addition to the Institutes, he wrote commentaries on most books of the Bible, as well as theological treatises and confessional documents. He regularly preached sermons throughout the week in Geneva. Calvin was influenced by the Augustinian tradition, which led him to expound the doctrine of predestination and the absolute sovereignty of God in salvation of the human soul from death and eternal damnation. | ||
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+ | Calvin' | ||
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+ | Opposition | ||
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+ | Calvin encountered bitter opposition to his work in Geneva. Around 1546, the uncoordinated forces coalesced into an identifiable group whom he referred to as the libertines, but who preferred to be called either Spirituels or Patriots. According to Calvin, these were people who felt that after being liberated through grace, they were exempted from both ecclesiastical and civil law. The group consisted of wealthy, politically powerful, and interrelated families of Geneva. At the end of January 1546, Pierre Ameaux, a maker of playing cards who had already been in conflict with the Consistory, attacked Calvin by calling him a " | ||
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+ | By 1547, opposition to Calvin and other French refugee ministers had grown to constitute the majority of the syndics, the civil magistrates of Geneva. On 27 June an unsigned threatening letter in Genevan dialect was found at the pulpit of St. Pierre Cathedral where Calvin preached. Suspecting a plot against both the church and the state, the council appointed a commission to investigate. Jacques Gruet, a Genevan member of Favre' | ||
+ | |||
+ | The Spirituels and Patriots continued organizing opposition, insulting the appointed ministers, and challenging the authority of the Consistory. The council straddled both sides of the conflict, alternately admonishing and upholding Calvin. When Perrin was elected first syndic in February 1552, Calvin' | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== July 13 ===== | ||
+ | ==== TULIP ==== | ||
+ | === T-U-L-I-P - The Five Points of Calvinism === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Calvinism, also called the Reformed tradition or the Reformed faith, is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice of John Calvin and other Reformation-era theologians. Calvinists broke with the Roman Catholic Church but differed with Lutherans on the real presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper, theories of worship, and the use of God's law for believers, among other things. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Calvinism can be a misleading term because the religious tradition it denotes is and has always been diverse, with a wide range of influences rather than a single founder. The movement was first called " | ||
+ | |||
+ | While the Reformed theological tradition addresses all of the traditional topics of Christian theology, the word Calvinism is sometimes used to refer to particular Calvinist views on soteriology and predestination, | ||
+ | |||
+ | Early influential Reformed theologians include John Calvin, Ulrich Zwingli, Martin Bucer, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, Theodore Beza, and John Knox. In the twentieth century, Abraham Kuyper, Herman Bavinck, B. B. Warfield, Karl Barth, and Cornelius Van Til were influential, | ||
+ | |||
+ | The biggest Reformed association is the World Communion of Reformed Churches with more than 80 million members in 211 member denominations around the World. There are more conservative Reformed federations like the World Reformed Fellowship and the International Conference of Reformed Churches. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Most objections to and attacks on Calvinism focus on the "five points of Calvinism," | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | Total depravity --- {Acts 10:1-4, 1 Corinthians 6:11, 1 Timothy 6:17-19}\\ | ||
+ | Unconditional election --- {Romans 2:10-11, Colossians 3:23-25, 1 Peter 1:16-17}\\ | ||
+ | Limited atonement --- {John 3:16, Romans 5:18, 1 Timothy 2:6, Titus 2:11}\\ | ||
+ | Irresistible grace --- {1 Timothy 2:3-4, 2 Timothy 2:12, Titus 3:4-7}\\ | ||
+ | Perseverance of the saints --- {John 15:6, Jude 1:12-13, Hebrews 10:39-39, 2 Peter 2:20-21} | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== July 14 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Huldrych (Ulrich) Zwingli ==== | ||
+ | === Huldrych Zwingli - Early Reformer === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Huldrych (Ulrich) Zwingli (1 January 1484 – 11 October 1531) was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. Born during a time of emerging Swiss patriotism and increasing criticism of the Swiss mercenary system, he attended the University of Vienna and the University of Basel, a scholarly centre of humanism. He continued his studies while he served as a pastor in Glarus and later in Einsiedeln, where he was influenced by the writings of Desiderius Erasmus. | ||
+ | |||
+ | In 1518, Zwingli became the pastor of the Grossmünster in Zurich where he began to preach ideas on reforming the Catholic Church. In his first public controversy in 1522, he attacked the custom of fasting during Lent. In his publications, | ||
+ | |||
+ | The Reformation spread to other parts of the Swiss Confederation, | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== July 15 ===== | ||
+ | ==== William Tyndale ==== | ||
+ | === William Tyndale translated the first English Bible from the Ancient Greek === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | William Tyndale translated the first English Bible from Greek notably using in part the Greek Textus Receptus of Desiderius Erasmus. | ||
+ | |||
+ | William Tyndale (1494–1536 AD) was an English scholar who became a leading figure in Protestant reform in the years leading up to his execution. He is well known for his translation of the Bible into English. He was influenced by the work of Desiderius Erasmus, who made the Greek New Testament available in Europe, and by Martin Luther. While a number of partial and incomplete translations had been made from the seventh century onward, the grass-roots spread of Wycliffe' | ||
+ | |||
+ | Tyndale had to learn Hebrew in Germany due to England' | ||
+ | |||
+ | In 1535 AD, Tyndale was arrested and jailed in the castle of Vilvoorde (Filford) outside Brussels for over a year. In 1536 he was convicted of heresy and executed by strangulation, | ||
+ | |||
+ | Notably, in 1611, the 54 independent scholars who created the King James Version, drew significantly from Tyndale, as well as translations that descended from his. One estimate suggests the New Testament in the King James Version is 83% Tyndale' | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== July 16 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Desiderius Erasmus ==== | ||
+ | === Desiderius Erasmus in 1516 AD, published the Greek (Textus Receptus) New Testament === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Desiderius Erasmus in 1516, published his (Textus Receptus) Greek New Testament - Note: the (Textus Receptus) was a coalition of various existing Greek Texts aligned to the newly received more ancient Greek texts from the recently fallen region of Constantinople hence the name " | ||
+ | |||
+ | **Desiderius Erasmus** | ||
+ | |||
+ | Over the years, Erasmus became intimately acquainted with biblical manuscripts available throughout Europe, particularly of the New Testament. Because the Word of God is quick and powerful and sharper than any two-edged sword, it is evident as Erasmus began to search the Scriptures, they had a profound effect upon his life. By the time of his death, the theology of Erasmus had shifted closer to that of the Anabaptists than that of Rome. This will shortly be documented. | ||
+ | |||
+ | As noted above, in 1516, Erasmus published from Basel, Switzerland, | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Desiderius Erasmus (27 October 1466 AD – 12 July 1536 AD), known as Erasmus of Rotterdam, or simply Erasmus, was a Dutch Renaissance humanist (i.e. professionalism), | ||
+ | |||
+ | Erasmus was a classical scholar who wrote in a pure Latin style. He was a proponent of religious toleration, and enjoyed the sobriquet " | ||
+ | |||
+ | Erasmus lived against the backdrop of the growing European religious Reformation; | ||
+ | |||
+ | Erasmus died suddenly in Basel in 1536 while preparing to return to Brabant, and was buried in the Basel Minster, the former cathedral of the city. A bronze statue of him was erected in his city of birth in 1622, replacing an earlier work in stone. | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | **Note:** though Erasmus had about a dozen Greek NT text Manuscripts available to him after comparing the various Manuscripts and confirming their uniformity he only heavily used a couple of them to complete his Greek NT Edition the Textus Receptus – not many repetitive Texts are needed if they all say the same thing because they are supposed to say the same thing. Only a couple of reliable Manuscripts were needed in order to combine them into the Greek Textus Receptus that we have today. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== July 17 ===== | ||
+ | ==== King James Version ==== | ||
+ | === The King James Version 1611 === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The King James Version (KJV), commonly known as the Authorized Version (AV) or King James Bible (KJB), is an English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England begun in 1604 AD and completed in 1611 AD. First printed by the King's Printer Robert Barker, this was the third translation into English to be approved by the English Church authorities. The first was the Great Bible commissioned in the reign of King Henry VIII (1535 AD), and the second was the Bishops' | ||
+ | |||
+ | King James gave the translators instructions intended to guarantee that the new version would conform to the ecclesiology and reflect the episcopal structure of the Church of England and its belief in an ordained clergy. The translation was done by 47 scholars, all of whom were members of the Church of England. In common with most other translations of the period, the New Testament was translated from Greek, the Old Testament was translated from Hebrew text, while the Apocrypha were translated from the Greek and Latin. In the Book of Common Prayer (1662 AD), the text of the Authorized Version replaced the text of the Great Bible – for Epistle and Gospel readings – and as such was authorized by Act of Parliament. By the first half of the 18th century, the Authorized Version was effectively unchallenged as the English translation used in Anglican and Protestant churches. Over the course of the 18th century, the Authorized Version supplanted the Latin Vulgate as the standard version of scripture for English speaking scholars. Today, the most used edition of the King James Bible, and often identified as plainly the King James Version [and even KJV 1611], especially in the United States, closely follows the standard text of 1769 AD, edited by Benjamin Blayney at Oxford. | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== July 18 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Myles Coverdale ==== | ||
+ | === Myles Coverdale - Coverdale Bible, the first complete English Bible 1535 AD === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Myles Coverdale (1488 – January 20, 1569 AD) was a 16th-century Bible translator who produced the first complete [OT and NT] printed translation of the Bible into English. | ||
+ | |||
+ | According to a plaque on the wall of York Minster he was believed to have been born in York in or about 1488. He studied at Cambridge (bachelor of canon law 1513), became priest at Norwich in 1514 and entered the convent of Austin friars at Cambridge, where Robert Barnes was Prior [Monastic superior] in 1523 and probably influenced him in favour of Reform. When Barnes was tried for heresy in 1526, Coverdale assisted in his defence and shortly afterward left the Augustinian house and fled to the Continent. Under the influence of Anglo-Italian senior clerks, Barnes would ultimately be burned at the stake in 1540 after the official passage of the Six Articles. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Legacy | ||
+ | |||
+ | His legacy was far-reaching and broad, including his English Bible of 1535. It may be an understatement to say that Erasmus, Tyndale, Coverdale, Roy and others laid the foundation for a Reformed Church of England. Further, he was involved with gentle revisions in the Great Bible, retaining much of Tyndale' | ||
+ | |||
+ | Coverdale is honoured, together with William Tyndale, with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on 6 October. His extensive contacts with English and Continental Reformers was integral to the Edwardean English Reformation: | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== July 19 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Oxford Martyrs ==== | ||
+ | === The Oxford Martyrs of 1555 AD === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The Oxford Martyrs were tried [during the reign of " | ||
+ | |||
+ | The three were tried at University Church of St Mary the Virgin, the official church of Oxford University on the High Street. The martyrs were imprisoned at the former Bocardo Prison near the still extant St Michael at the Northgate church (at the north gate of the city walls) in Cornmarket Street. The door of their cell is on display in the tower of the church. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The martyrs were burnt at the stake just outside the city walls to the north, where Broad Street is now located. Latimer and Ridley were burnt on 16 October 1555. Cranmer was burnt five months later on 21 March 1556. | ||
+ | |||
+ | A small area cobbled with stones forming a cross in the centre of the road outside the front of Balliol College marks the site. The Victorian spire-like Martyrs' | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== July 20 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Thomas Cranmer ==== | ||
+ | === Thomas Cranmer Archbishop of Canterbury, Oxford Martyr, compiled the first two editions of the Book of Common Prayer === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Thomas Cranmer (2 July 1489 – 21 March 1556) was a leader of the English Reformation and Archbishop of Canterbury during the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI and, for a short time, Mary I. He helped build the case for the annulment of Henry' | ||
+ | |||
+ | During Cranmer' | ||
+ | |||
+ | When Edward came to the throne, Cranmer was able to promote major reforms. He wrote and compiled the first two editions of the Book of Common Prayer, a complete liturgy for the English Church. With the assistance of several Continental reformers to whom he gave refuge, he developed new doctrinal standards in areas such as the Eucharist, clerical celibacy, the role of images in places of worship, and the veneration of saints. Cranmer promulgated the new doctrines through the Prayer Book, the Homilies and other publications. | ||
+ | |||
+ | After the accession of the Roman Catholic Mary I, Cranmer was put on trial for treason and heresy. Imprisoned for over two years and under pressure from Church authorities, | ||
+ | |||
+ | While Cranmer was following Charles through Italy, he received a royal letter dated 1 October 1532 informing him that he had been appointed the new Archbishop of Canterbury, following the death of archbishop William Warham. Cranmer was ordered to return to England. The appointment had been secured by the family of Anne Boleyn, who was being courted by Henry. When Cranmer' | ||
+ | |||
+ | It is difficult to assess how Cranmer’s theological views had evolved since his Cambridge days. There is evidence that he continued to support humanism; he renewed Erasmus' | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== July 21 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Book of Common Prayer ==== | ||
+ | === Book of Common Prayer 1549 AD - A major revision was published in 1662 AD and Later Modernized === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The Book of Common Prayer is the short title of a number of related prayer books used in the Anglican Communion [Church of England], as well as by the Continuing Anglican, " | ||
+ | |||
+ | The 1549 book was soon succeeded by a more reformed revision in 1552 under the same editorial hand, that of Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury. It was used only for a few months, as after Edward VI's death in 1553, his half-sister Mary I restored Roman Catholic worship. She herself died in 1558, and in 1559 Elizabeth I reintroduced the 1552 book with a few modifications to make it acceptable to more traditionally minded worshippers, | ||
+ | |||
+ | In 1604 James I ordered some further changes, the most significant of these being the addition to the Catechism of a section on the Sacraments. Following the tumultuous events leading to and including the English Civil War, another major revision was published in 1662 (Church of England 1662). That edition has remained the official prayer book of the Church of England, although in the 21st century, an alternative book called Common Worship has largely displaced the Book of Common Prayer at the main Sunday worship service of most English parish churches. | ||
+ | |||
+ | A Book of Common Prayer with local variations is used in churches inside and outside the Anglican Communion in over 50 different countries and in over 150 different languages (Careless 2003, p. 23). In many parts of the world, other books have replaced it in regular weekly worship. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Traditional English Lutheran, Methodist and Presbyterian prayer books have borrowed from the Book of Common Prayer and the marriage and burial rites have found their way into those of other denominations and into the English language. Like the Authorized King James Bible and the works of Shakespeare, | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
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+ | |||
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+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== July 22 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Oliver Cromwell ==== | ||
+ | === Oliver Cromwell - 1st Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 – 3 September 1658) was an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Born into the middle gentry, Cromwell was relatively obscure for the first 40 years of his life. After undergoing a religious conversion in the 1630s, he became an independent puritan, taking a generally (but not completely) tolerant view towards the many Protestant sects of his period. An intensely religious man—a self-styled Puritan Moses—he fervently believed that God was guiding his victories. He was elected Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in 1628 and for Cambridge in the Short (1640) and Long (1640–49) Parliaments. He entered the English Civil War on the side of the " | ||
+ | |||
+ | Cromwell was one of the signatories of King Charles I's death warrant in 1649, and, as a member of the Rump Parliament (1649–53), | ||
+ | |||
+ | On 20 April 1653 he dismissed the Rump Parliament by force, setting up a short-lived nominated assembly known as the Barebones Parliament, before being invited by his fellow leaders to rule as Lord Protector of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland from 16 December 1653. As a ruler he executed an aggressive and effective foreign policy. After his death from natural causes in 1658 he was buried in Westminster Abbey, but after the Royalists returned to power in 1660 they had his corpse dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Cromwell is one of the most controversial figures in the history of the British Isles, considered a regicidal dictator by historians such as David Hume, a military dictator by Winston Churchill, but a hero of liberty by Thomas Carlyle and Samuel Rawson Gardiner. In a 2002 BBC poll in Britain, Cromwell was selected as one of the ten greatest Britons of all time. | ||
+ | |||
+ | English Civil War (1642–1651) | ||
+ | |||
+ | Failure to resolve the issues before the Long Parliament led to armed conflict between Parliament and Charles I in late 1642, the beginning of the English Civil War. Before joining Parliament' | ||
+ | |||
+ | By the time of the Battle of Marston Moor in July 1644, Cromwell had risen to the rank of Lieutenant General of horse in Manchester' | ||
+ | |||
+ | At the critical Battle of Naseby in June 1645, the New Model Army smashed the King's major army. Cromwell led his wing with great success at Naseby, again routing the Royalist cavalry. At the Battle of Langport on 10 July, Cromwell participated in the defeat of the last sizeable Royalist field army. Naseby and Langport effectively ended the King's hopes of victory, and the subsequent Parliamentarian campaigns involved taking the remaining fortified Royalist positions in the west of England. In October 1645, Cromwell besieged and took the wealthy and formidable Catholic fortress Basing House, later to be accused of killing 100 of its 300-man Royalist garrison after its surrender. Cromwell also took part in successful sieges at Bridgwater, Sherborne, Bristol, Devizes, and Winchester, then spent the first half of 1646 mopping up resistance in Devon and Cornwall. Charles I surrendered to the Scots on 5 May 1646, effectively ending the First English Civil War. Cromwell and Fairfax took the formal surrender of the Royalists at Oxford in June. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Second Civil War | ||
+ | |||
+ | The failure to conclude a political agreement with the king led eventually to the outbreak of the Second English Civil War in 1648, when the King tried to regain power by force of arms. Cromwell first put down a Royalist uprising in south Wales led by Rowland Laugharne, winning back Chepstow Castle on 25 May and six days later forcing the surrender of Tenby. The castle at Carmarthen was destroyed by burning. The much stronger castle at Pembroke, however, fell only after a siege of eight weeks. Cromwell dealt leniently with the ex-royalist soldiers, but less so with those who had previously been members of the parliamentary army, John Poyer eventually being executed in London after the drawing of lots. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Cromwell then marched north to deal with a pro-Royalist Scottish army (the Engagers) who had invaded England. At Preston, Cromwell, in sole command for the first time and with an army of 9,000, won a brilliant victory against an army twice as large. | ||
+ | |||
+ | During 1648, Cromwell' | ||
+ | |||
+ | Death and Posthumous Execution | ||
+ | |||
+ | Cromwell is thought to have suffered from malaria and from " | ||
+ | |||
+ | On 30 January 1661, (the 12th anniversary of the execution of Charles I), Cromwell' | ||
+ | |||
+ | In Westminster Abbey, the site of Cromwell’s burial was marked during the 19th century by a floor stone in what is now the Air Force Chapel, reading, "THE BURIAL PLACE OF OLIVER CROMWELL 1658–1661" | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
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+ | |||
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+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== July 23 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Westminster Confession of Faith ==== | ||
+ | === The Westminster Confession of Faith authored in 1646 and a longer printed version in 1647 AD === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The Westminster Confession of Faith is a Reformed confession of faith. Drawn up by the 1646 Westminster Assembly as part of the Westminster Standards to be a confession of the Church of England, it became and remains the ' | ||
+ | |||
+ | In 1643, the English Parliament called upon " | ||
+ | |||
+ | The Westminster Confession of Faith was modified and adopted by Congregationalists in England in the form of the Savoy Declaration (1658). Likewise, the Baptists of England modified the Savoy Declaration to produce the Second London Baptist Confession (1689). English Presbyterians, | ||
+ | |||
+ | Contents | ||
+ | |||
+ | The confession is a systematic exposition of Calvinist orthodoxy (which neo-orthodox scholars refer to as " | ||
+ | |||
+ | It includes doctrines common to most of Christendom such as the Trinity and Jesus' sacrificial death and resurrection, | ||
+ | |||
+ | Even more controversially, | ||
+ | |||
+ | American Presbyterian Adoption with Revisions | ||
+ | |||
+ | The first American Presbyterian ministers were New England Congregationalists, | ||
+ | |||
+ | When the Synod of Philadelphia met in 1729 to adopt the Westminster Confession as the doctrinal standard, it required all ministers to declare their approval of the Westminster Confession of Faith and catechisms. At the same time, the Adopting Act allowed candidates and ministers to scruple articles within the Confession. Whether or not the article scrupled was essential or nonessential was judged by the presbytery with jurisdiction over the candidate' | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== July 24 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Counter-Reformation ==== | ||
+ | === The Catholic Counter-Reformation initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The Counter-Reformation (also the Catholic Revival or Catholic Reformation) was the period of Catholic revival beginning with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and ending at the close of the Thirty Years' War (1648), and was initiated in response to [undo] the Protestant Reformation. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort composed of four major elements: | ||
+ | |||
+ | Ecclesiastical or structural reconfiguration\\ | ||
+ | Religious orders\\ | ||
+ | Spiritual movements\\ | ||
+ | Political dimensions | ||
+ | |||
+ | Such reforms included the foundation of seminaries for the proper training of priests in the spiritual life and the theological traditions of the Church, the reform of religious life by returning orders to their spiritual foundations, | ||
+ | |||
+ | Policies | ||
+ | |||
+ | The Catholic Reformation was not only a political and Church policy oriented movement, but it also included major figures such as Ignatius of Loyola, Teresa of Ávila, John of the Cross, Francis de Sales, and Philip Neri, who added to the spirituality of the Catholic Church. Teresa of Avila and John of the Cross were Spanish mystics and reformers of the Carmelite Order, whose ministry focused on interior conversion to Christ, the deepening of prayer, and commitment to God's will. Teresa was given the task of developing and writing about the way to perfection in her love and unity with Christ. Her publications, | ||
+ | |||
+ | Thomas Merton called John of the Cross the greatest of all mystical theologians. An important clarification about the word " | ||
+ | |||
+ | The Virgin Mary played an increasingly central role in Catholic devotions. The victory at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 was accredited to the Virgin Mary and signified the beginning of a strong resurgence of Marian devotions. During and after the Catholic Reformation, | ||
+ | |||
+ | The sacrament of penance was transformed from a social to a personal experience; that is, from a public community act to a private confession. It now took place in private in a confessional. It was a change from reconciliation with the Church to reconciliation directly with God and from emphasis on social sins of hostility to private sins called "the secret sins of the heart." | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== July 25 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Guy Fawkes - The Gunpowder Plot ==== | ||
+ | === Guy Fawkes - The Gunpowder Plot against King James I of England (sponsorer of the KJV (AV) translation of the Bible that was named after him) === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Guy Fawkes (April 13, 1570 – January 31, 1606 AD), also known as Guido Fawkes, the name he adopted while fighting for the Spanish in the Low Countries, was a member of a group of provincial English Catholics who planned the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 AD, in earlier centuries often called the Gunpowder Treason Plot or the Jesuit Treason, was a failed assassination attempt against King James I of England and VI of Scotland by a group of provincial English Catholics led by Robert Catesby. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Gunpowder Plot | ||
+ | |||
+ | In 1604 Fawkes became involved with a small group of English Catholics, led by Robert Catesby, who planned to assassinate the Protestant King James and replace him with his daughter, third in the line of succession, Princess Elizabeth. Fawkes was described by the Jesuit priest and former school friend Oswald Tesimond as " | ||
+ | |||
+ | The first meeting of the five central conspirators took place on Sunday 20 May 1604, at an inn called the Duck and Drake, in the fashionable Strand district of London. Catesby had already proposed at an earlier meeting with Thomas Wintour and John Wright to kill the King and his government by blowing up "the Parliament House with gunpowder" | ||
+ | |||
+ | One of the conspirators, | ||
+ | |||
+ | The plotters purchased the lease to the room, which also belonged to John Whynniard. Unused and filthy, it was considered an ideal hiding place for the gunpowder the plotters planned to store. According to Fawkes, 20 barrels of gunpowder were brought in at first, followed by 16 more on 20 July. On 28 July however, the ever-present threat of the plague delayed the opening of Parliament until Tuesday, 5 November. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Overseas | ||
+ | |||
+ | In an attempt to gain foreign support, in May 1605 Fawkes travelled overseas and informed Hugh Owen of the plotters' | ||
+ | |||
+ | It is uncertain when Fawkes returned to England, but he was back in London by late August 1605, when he and Wintour discovered that the gunpowder stored in the undercroft had decayed. More gunpowder was brought into the room, along with firewood to conceal it. Fawkes' | ||
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+ | Discovery | ||
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+ | A few of the conspirators were concerned about fellow Catholics who would be present at Parliament during the opening. On the evening of 26 October, Lord Monteagle received an anonymous letter warning him to stay away, and to " | ||
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+ | Trial and Execution | ||
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+ | The trial of eight of the plotters began on Monday 27 January 1606. Fawkes shared the barge from the Tower to Westminster Hall with seven of his co-conspirators. They were kept in the Star Chamber before being taken to Westminster Hall, where they were displayed on a purpose-built scaffold. The King and his close family, watching in secret, were among the spectators as the Lords Commissioners read out the list of charges. Fawkes was identified as Guido Fawkes, " | ||
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+ | The outcome was never in doubt. The jury found all of the defendants guilty, and the Lord Chief Justice Sir John Popham proclaimed them guilty of high treason. The Attorney General Sir Edward Coke told the court that each of the condemned would be drawn backwards to his death, by a horse, his head near the ground. They were to be "put to death halfway between heaven and earth as unworthy of both". Their genitals would be cut off and burnt before their eyes, and their bowels and hearts removed. They would then be decapitated, | ||
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+ | On 31 January 1606, Fawkes and three others – Thomas Wintour, Ambrose Rookwood, and Robert Keyes – were dragged (i.e. drawn) from the Tower on wattled hurdles to the Old Palace Yard at Westminster, | ||
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+ | ===== July 26 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Ignatius of Loyola - Agent of Rome ==== | ||
+ | === Ignatius of Loyola a Catholic agent who founded the militant Jesuits Order (Agency) - a Secret Service/CIA version for the Roman Catholic Church === | ||
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+ | Ignatius of Loyola (October 27, 1491 – July 31, 1556) was a Spanish knight from a local Basque noble family, hermit, priest since 1537, and theologian, who founded the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) and, on 19 April 1541, became its first Superior General. Ignatius emerged as a religious leader during the Counter-Reformation. Loyola' | ||
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+ | Ignatius was chosen as the first Superior General of his religious order, invested with the title of Father General by the Jesuits. He sent his companions as missionaries around Europe to create schools, colleges, and seminaries. Juan de Vega, the ambassador of Charles V at Rome had met Ignatius there. Esteeming him and the Jesuits, when Vega was appointed Viceroy of Sicily he brought Jesuits with him. A Jesuit college was opened at Messina; success was marked, and its rules and methods were afterwards copied in other colleges. In 1548 Spiritual Exercises was finally printed, and he was briefly brought before the Roman Inquisition, | ||
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+ | Ignatius wrote the Jesuit Constitutions, | ||
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+ | ===== July 27 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Jesuits - Pope Francis the Occult " | ||
+ | === The Jesuits Agency for " | ||
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+ | |||
+ | The Society of Jesus (SJ) is a Christian male religious congregation of the Catholic Church. The members are called Jesuits. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents. Jesuits work in education (founding schools, colleges, universities and seminaries), | ||
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+ | Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ. In 1534, Ignatius and six other young men, including Francis Xavier and Peter Faber, gathered and professed vows of poverty, chastity, and later obedience, including a special vow of obedience to the Pope. Rule 13 of Ignatius' | ||
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+ | Because of the military background of Ignatius and the members' | ||
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+ | The Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General, currently Adolfo Nicolás. | ||
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+ | The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome. The historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. | ||
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+ | **Pope Francis - The Jesuit Pope aka The Black [Occult] Pope** | ||
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+ | Francis (Latin: Franciscus; Italian: Francesco; born Jorge Mario Bergoglio, 17 December 1936) is the 266th and current Pope of the Catholic Church, having been elected Bishop of Rome and absolute Sovereign of the Vatican City State. | ||
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+ | Popular mainstream media frequently portray Pope Francis either as a progressive papal reformer or with seemingly liberal, moderate values. Western news outlets often seek to portray his message with a less-doctrinal tone of papacy in hopes of extrapolating his words to convey a more merciful and tolerant message. In addition, various media outlets persist with notions that the Pontiff would officially change Catholic doctrine as part of the reform on the Roman Curia. In the news media, both faithful and non-believers often refer to a " | ||
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+ | ===== July 28 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Separatists - Pilgrims ==== | ||
+ | === Separatists also commonly called Pilgrims === | ||
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+ | Separatists commonly called Pilgrims established the Colony of Plymouth, Massachusetts in North America | ||
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+ | Pilgrims (US), or Pilgrim Fathers (UK), is a name commonly applied to early settlers of the Plymouth Colony in present-day Plymouth, Massachusetts, | ||
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+ | Their leadership came from the religious congregations of Brownist English Dissenters who had fled the volatile political environment in England for the relative calm and tolerance of 16th–17th century Holland in the Netherlands. | ||
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+ | Concerned with losing their cultural identity, the group later arranged with English investors to establish a new colony in North America. The colony, established in 1620, became the second successful English settlement (after the founding of Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607) and later the oldest continuously inhabited English settlement in what was to become the United States of America. | ||
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+ | The Pilgrims' | ||
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+ | By this time, non-English European colonization of the Americas was also underway in New Netherland, New France, Essequibo, Colonial Brazil, Barbados, the Viceroyalty of Peru, and New Spain. | ||
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+ | Separatists | ||
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+ | The core of the group that would come to be known as the Pilgrims were brought together by a common belief in the ideas promoted by Richard Clyfton, a Brownist parson at All Saints' | ||
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+ | Unlike the Puritan group who maintained their membership in and allegiance to the Church of England, Separatists held that their differences with the Church of England were irreconcilable and that their worship should be organized independently of the trappings, traditions and organization of a central church. William Brewster, a former diplomatic assistant to the Netherlands, | ||
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+ | The Separatists had long been controversial. Under the 1559 Act of Uniformity, it was illegal not to attend official Church of England services, with a fine of one shilling (£0.05; about £16 today) for each missed Sunday and holy day. The penalties for conducting unofficial services included imprisonment and larger fines. Under the policy of this time, Barrowe and Greenwood were executed for sedition in 1593. | ||
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+ | Mayflower Compact | ||
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+ | With the charter for the Plymouth Council for New England incomplete by the time the colonists departed England (it would be granted while they were in transit, on November 3/November 13), they arrived without a patent; the older Wincob patent was from their abandoned dealings with the London Company. Some of the passengers, aware of the situation, suggested that without a patent in place, they were free to do as they chose upon landing and ignore the contract with the investors. | ||
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+ | To address this issue, a brief contract, later to be known as the Mayflower Compact, was drafted promising cooperation among the settlers "for the general good of the Colony unto which we promise all due submission and obedience." | ||
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+ | ===== July 29 ===== | ||
+ | ==== The Puritans ==== | ||
+ | === The Puritans, English Protestants who desired further reforms after the Reformation === | ||
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+ | The Puritans were a significant group of English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries, including, but not limited to, English Calvinists. Puritanism in this sense was founded by some Marian exiles from the clergy shortly after the accession of Elizabeth I of England in 1558, as an activist movement within the Church of England. | ||
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+ | In modern times, the word ' | ||
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+ | Puritans were blocked from changing the established church from within, and severely restricted in England by laws controlling the practice of religion. Their views, however, were transported by the emigration of congregations to the Netherlands (and later New England), and by evangelical clergy to Ireland (and later into Wales), and were spread into lay society and parts of the educational system, particularly certain colleges of the University of Cambridge. They took on distinctive views on clerical dress and in opposition to the episcopal system, particularly after the 1619 conclusions of the Synod of Dort were resisted by the English bishops. They largely adopted Sabbatarian views in the 17th century, and were influenced by millennialism. | ||
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+ | In alliance with the growing commercial world, the parliamentary opposition to the royal prerogative, | ||
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+ | Puritans, by definition, were dissatisfied with the limited extent of the English Reformation, | ||
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+ | Puritans and Separatists | ||
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+ | Puritans who were not satisfied with the Reformation of the Church of England, but who remained within the Church of England advocating further reforms, are known as " | ||
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+ | Separatists were a group who advocated complete separation from the Church of England, but had no particular Church title. Many of the Mayflower Pilgrims were referred to only as Separatists. | ||
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+ | John Winthrop and the other main leaders of emigration to New England in 1629 were non-separating Puritans. However, John Robinson and William Brewster, the Pilgrim leaders, were separatists. There is no current consensus among historians whether Separatists can properly be counted as Puritans. | ||
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+ | Especially after the English Restoration of 1660, separating Puritans were called " | ||
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+ | ===== July 30 ===== | ||
+ | ==== The Quakers ==== | ||
+ | === Quakers are a family of religious movements collectively known as the Religious Society of Friends === | ||
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+ | During and after the English Civil War (1642-1651) many dissenting Christian groups emerged, including the Seekers and others. A young man named George Fox was dissatisfied by the teachings of the Church of England and non-conformists. He had a revelation that there is one, even, Christ Jesus, who can speak to thy condition, and became convinced that it was possible to have a direct experience of Christ without the aid of an ordained clergy. He had a vision on Pendle Hill in Lancashire, England, in which he believed that "the Lord let me see in what places he had a great people to be gathered" | ||
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+ | In 1650, George Fox was brought before magistrates, | ||
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+ | Quakerism gained a considerable following in England and Wales, and the numbers increased to a peak of 60,000 in England and Wales by 1680 (1.15% of the population of England and Wales). However the dominant discourse of Protestantism viewed the Quakers as a blasphemous challenge to social and political order, leading to official persecution in England and Wales under the Quaker Act 1662 and the Conventicle Act 1664. This was relaxed after the Declaration of Indulgence (1687–1688) and stopped under the Act of Toleration 1689. | ||
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+ | One modern view of Quakerism at this time was that the relationship with Christ was encouraged through spiritualization of human relations, and “the redefinition of the Quakers as a holy tribe, “the family and household of God”. Together with Margaret Fell, the wife of Thomas Fell, who was the vice-chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and a pre-eminent judge, Fox developed new conceptions of family and community that emphasized “holy conversation”: | ||
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+ | Quakers (or Friends, as they refer to themselves) are members of a family of religious movements collectively known as the Religious Society of Friends. The central unifying doctrine of these movements is the priesthood of all believers, a doctrine derived from a verse in the New Testament, 1 Peter 2:9. Most (but not all) Friends view themselves as members of a Christian denomination. They include those with evangelical, | ||
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+ | The first Quakers, known as the Valiant Sixty, lived in mid-17th century England. The movement arose from the Legatine-Arians and other dissenting Protestant groups, breaking away from the established Church of England. These Quakers attempted to convert others to their understanding of Christianity, | ||
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+ | Immigration to America | ||
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+ | In search of economic opportunities and a more tolerant environment in which to build communities of “holy conversation, | ||
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+ | While in some areas like New England they continued to experience persecution, | ||
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+ | Today, around 89% of Friends worldwide practice programmed worship — that is, worship with singing and a prepared message from the Bible, often coordinated by a pastor. Around 11% of Friends practice waiting worship (also known as unprogrammed worship) — that is worship where the order of service is not planned in advance, which is predominantly silent, and which may include unprepared vocal ministry from anyone present, so long as it is credible to those assembled that the speaker is moved to speak by God. Some meetings of both styles have Recorded Ministers [i.e. satellite churches] in their meetings — these are Friends who have been recognised for their gift of vocal ministry. | ||
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+ | ===== July 31 ===== | ||
+ | ==== The Mennonites ==== | ||
+ | === The Mennonites are Church Communities formed from Anabaptist Denominations === | ||
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+ | The Mennonites are a Christian group based around the church communities of Anabaptist denominations named after Menno Simons (1496–1561) of Friesland (at that time, a part of the Holy Roman Empire). Through his writings, Simons articulated and formalized the teachings of earlier Swiss founders. The teachings of the Mennonites were founded on their belief in both the mission and ministry of Jesus Christ, which they held to with great conviction despite persecution by the various Roman Catholic and Protestant states. Rather than fight, the majority survived by fleeing to neighboring states where ruling families were tolerant of their radical belief in believer' | ||
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+ | In contemporary society, Mennonites either are described only as a religious denomination with members of different ethnic origins or as both an ethnic group and a religious denomination. There is controversy among Mennonites about this issue, with some insisting that they are simply a religious group while others argue that they form a distinct ethnic group. Some historians and sociologists treat Mennonites as an ethno-religious group, while other historians challenge that perception. | ||
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+ | There are about 1.7 million Mennonites worldwide as of 2012. Mennonite congregations worldwide embody the full scope of Mennonite practice from "plain people" | ||
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+ | The Mennonite Disaster Service, based in North America, provides both immediate and long-term responses to hurricanes, floods, and other disasters. The Mennonite Central Committee provides disaster relief around the world alongside their long-term international development programs. Other programs offer a variety of relief efforts and services throughout the world. | ||
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+ | Since the latter part of the 20th century, some Mennonite groups have become more actively involved with peace and social justice issues, helping to found Christian Peacemaker Teams and Mennonite Conciliation Service. | ||
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+ | Fragmentation and Variation | ||
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+ | During the 16th century, the Mennonites and other Anabaptists were relentlessly persecuted. This period of persecution has had a significant impact on Mennonite identity. Martyrs Mirror, published in 1660, documents much of the persecution of Anabaptists and their predecessors. Today, the book is still the most important book besides the Bible for many Mennonites and Amish, in particular for the Swiss–South German branch of the Mennonites. Persecution was still going on until 1710 in various parts of Switzerland. | ||
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+ | Disagreements within the church over the years led to other splits; sometimes the reasons were theological, | ||
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+ | The first recorded account of this group is in a written order by Countess Anne, who ruled a small province in central Europe. The presence of some small groups of violent Anabaptists was causing political and religious turmoil in her state, so she decreed that all Anabaptists were to be driven out. The order made an exception for the non-violent branch known at that time as the Menists. | ||
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+ | Political rulers often admitted the Menists or Mennonites into their states because they were honest, hardworking and peaceful. When their practices upset the powerful state churches, princes would renege on exemptions for military service, or a new monarch would take power, and the Mennonites would be forced to flee again, usually leaving everything but their families behind. Often, another monarch in another state would grant them welcome, at least for a while. | ||
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+ | While Mennonites in Colonial America were enjoying considerable religious freedom, their counterparts in Europe continued to struggle with persecution and temporary refuge under certain ruling monarchs. They were sometimes invited to settle in areas of poor soil that no one else could farm. By contrast, in The Netherlands the Mennonites (nl: Doopsgezinden) enjoyed a relatively high degree of tolerance. The Mennonites often farmed and reclaimed land in exchange for exemption from mandatory military service. However, once the land was arable again, this arrangement would often change, and the persecution would begin again. Because the land still needed to be tended, the ruler would not drive out the Mennonites but would pass laws to force them to stay, while at the same time severely limiting their freedom. Mennonites had to build their churches facing onto back streets or alleys, and they were forbidden from announcing the beginning of services with the sound of a bell. | ||
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+ | In addition, high taxes were enacted in exchange for both continuing the military service exemption, and to keep the states' | ||
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+ | A strong emphasis on " | ||
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